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Introducing the Most Primitive Organism on Earth

2025-03-18 20:28:31 By Mary Jones

To keep things concise and straightforward, I’ll assume that anyone reading this is familiar with the fundamentals of evolution. If you happen to be reading this from a confined bathroom on your parents’ community laptop, part of an evangelical group, I apologize. I’m not equipped to be your guide to contemporary science. For everyone else, it’s clear that the majority of life forms on our planet have evolved into their current states through extensive adaptation, developing features such as opposable thumbs, gills, or even poison-filled sacs.

You might be curious if there exists a creature that got it right on the first attempt—a flawless example that possessed all it required from the instant it came into being. Which organism on our planet has undergone the least transformation throughout the ages?

Well, I have the answer for you, but it’s probably not as exciting as you were hoping for (I’ll also note that I’m not including microorganisms because the answer being “bacteria,” well, that’s no fun at all).

If I had to place my bets, I’d put my money on the horseshoe crab. It seems like these strange little creatures are destined to be the first to make contact with extraterrestrial beings. Alternatively, one might wish for a formidable apex predator, one that has never faced defeat and comes armed with natural spines and sharp edges from the very beginning.

The response is not related to either of those options. It's somewhat expected, in a peculiar way, that the apparent victor is simply a soggy collection of cells: the sponge.

Not only have they been well-equipped to handle pretty much the entirety of life on Earth, sponges are also the oldest animal on earth, the first to emerge from life's single common ancestor: a phylum. Since roughly 640 million years ago, sponges have been perfectly content to float around and filter-feed on bacteria, and that lifestyle has never needed a drastic change. Of course they've branched off, and there’s many more species than there used to be, but that number still tops out at about 5,000.

In other words, SpongeBob SquarePants might trace his lineage all the way back to the very first multi-cellular organisms on Earth.

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Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

Discover the Secrets Behind Pruney Fingers: A Dive into Biology, Evolution, and Health

View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Ever wondered about pruney fingers? Dive into this intriguing occurrence that highlights aspects of biology, evolution, and the crucial role of staying hydrated. The Unexpected Science of Wrinkled Fingers For centuries, the phenomenon of pruney fingers has intrigued people. While many believe that it’s simply a result of being in water for too long, the truth is more intricate, involving our nervous system and evolutionary biology. When our hands are submerged, the nervous system sends signals that prompt the skin to wrinkle. This response is not just a trivial consequence of wet skin; rather, it has an important function, reflecting a mechanism that has been refined over generations of evolution. A Benefit of Evolution The capacity to produce pruney fingers presents notable advantages for survival, especially for our forebears. Picture a setting where the ability to obtain food and endure challenges relied greatly on agility and grip strength. The wrinkling of finger skin improves traction in moist environments, whether it's scaling rocky terrains, collecting water plants, or gripping slippery objects. This evolutionary characteristic exemplifies nature's cleverness, highlighting how biological changes can significantly impact a species' survival and prosperity. The Importance of Staying Hydrated It's fascinating how hydration levels can greatly impact the extent of skin wrinkling. Proper hydration not only promotes overall skin health but also plays a crucial role in determining the visibility of wrinkles. When the body is lacking hydration, the skin loses its elasticity, resulting in a diminished wrinkling response. By recognizing the connection between hydration and skin health, individuals may be encouraged to focus more on these aspects, ultimately enhancing their overall well-being. Comprehending Skin Wellness Healthy skin is a sign of overall wellness. Keeping your body hydrated is vital, not only to avoid wrinkled fingers but also for numerous skin functions. Water plays a key role in preserving skin elasticity, controlling temperature, and delivering important nutrients. Focusing on hydration can promote skin health and may also improve the skin’s response to wrinkling when needed—like during boating, swimming, or other water-related activities. Effective Strategies for Achieving Ideal Hydration To enhance your hydration, try adding more foods with high water content to your meals. Fruits such as cucumbers, watermelon, and oranges can significantly boost your daily fluid consumption. Establishing a habit of taking regular water breaks can serve as a helpful reminder to keep your hydration levels in check throughout the day. Staying properly hydrated is one of the easiest and most effective approaches to improve your skin health and overall performance in everyday tasks. Delving Deeper into the Marvels of Biology The phenomenon of pruney fingers encourages us to recognize the remarkable adaptations our bodies have undergone. This biological marvel provides a chance to explore the intriguing realm of human evolution. Gaining insight into how our forebears adjusted to their surroundings not only enhances our understanding of biology but also fosters a greater appreciation for the wonders of human progress. Incorporating Knowledge into Everyday Living Gaining awareness of these biological functions can result in meaningful lifestyle adjustments. By prioritizing proper hydration or understanding the benefits of our body's inherent reactions, mindfulness can elevate routine behaviors into effective strategies for promoting holistic health. Investigating how our nervous system influences skin reactions enhances our understanding of biological processes. Whether we're leisurely swimming, doing the dishes, or indulging in a soothing bath, this physiological phenomenon highlights the remarkable connection between our bodies and their surroundings. Final Thoughts: Embrace the Intricacies of the Natural World Wrinkled fingers are not just a trivial response to being submerged in water; they represent a fascinating convergence of biology, evolution, and health. This intriguing phenomenon highlights the intricate complexities of nature. By exploring the reasons behind this reaction, we can cultivate a greater appreciation for our bodies and recognize the critical importance of hydration in preserving skin health. As you delve deeper into the wonders of biological responses, keep in mind the significance of staying hydrated, embrace the subtleties of natural evolution, and use this understanding to enrich your everyday life.

Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

A supermassive black hole has been observed at a distance of 12.9 billion light-years from our planet, and it is emitting a powerful beam of energy directed straight towards us.

The recently identified "blazar," boasting a mass equivalent to 700 million suns, is the most ancient example of its type ever observed, altering our understanding of the early universe. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Blazars are enormous black holes that emit powerful energy jets aimed straight at our planet. Astronomers have identified a supermassive black hole that is emitting an enormous energy beam directed straight at Earth. This colossal entity, weighing approximately 700 million times that of our sun, is targeting us from a galaxy dating back to the early universe, around 800 million years post-Big Bang. This discovery marks it as the farthest "blazar" ever observed. Some supermassive black holes, known as quasars, are so massive they can superheat the material doom-spiraling within their accretion disk to hundreds of thousands of degrees, at which point they emit huge amounts of electromagnetic radiation. The quasars' immense magnetic fields can sculpt this energy into twin jets that shoot out perpendicularly to accretion disks and extend well beyond their host galaxies. By chance, some of these quasars point one of their twin jets directly at Earth, creating radio bright spots that pulse as these black holes consume matter. These black holes are known as blazars. In the new study, published Dec. 18, 2024, in The Astrophysical Journal Letters, researchers discovered a new blazar, dubbed J0410−0139, using data from multiple telescopes, including the Atacama Large Millimeter Array, the Magellan telescopes and the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope — all located in Chile — and NASA's Chandra observatory in Earth-orbit. Radio emissions from this blazar have journeyed over 12.9 billion light-years to arrive at our observation point, setting a new benchmark for this category of cosmic entities. The astonishing age of this luminous giant may provide scientists with insights into the formation of the earliest supermassive black holes and the subsequent evolution of these galactic cores. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. If they were located much nearer to us, blazars would shine as some of the most luminous objects in the night sky. "The alignment of J0410−0139's jet with our line of sight allows astronomers to peer directly into the heart of this cosmic powerhouse," study co-author Emmanuel Momjian, an astronomer at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Virginia, said in a statement. "This blazar offers a unique laboratory to study the interplay between jets, black holes, and their environments during one of the universe’s most transformative epochs." The most ancient blazar discovered to date. Fewer than 3,000 blazars have been discovered to date, and most have been located much closer to Earth than J0410−0139. The previous record holder for the most distant blazar was PSO J0309+27, which was discovered in 2020 and is around 12.8 billion light-years from Earth, making it around 100 million years younger than J0410−0139. When viewed in the context of the universe's vast age, this age gap appears negligible. Nevertheless, during those 100 million years, a supermassive black hole could potentially expand by several magnitudes, rendering this a noteworthy advancement. Finding one blazar at this distance hints that many other supermassive black holes existed at this point in cosmic history that either had no jets or beamed their radiation away from Earth, study lead author Eduardo Bañados, an astronomer at the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy in Germany, said in another statement. "Picture this: you come across a story about an individual who has struck it rich with a $100 million lottery win," Bañados remarked. "Considering how infrequent such a victory is, it’s clear that numerous other participants in that lottery didn’t walk away with such a massive prize. In the same vein, discovering one [quasar] with a jet aimed straight at us suggests that during that era of cosmic evolution, there were likely many more [quasars] whose jets were oriented away from our line of sight." The researchers will now hunt for more blazars from this time and are confident they will find some. "Where there is one, there's one hundred more [waiting to be found]," study co-author Silvia Belladitta, an astronomer at the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, said in the statement.

Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

A recent study suggests that Earth's moon may have once possessed rings similar to those of Saturn.

Recent research suggests that moons within our solar system might have possessed rings in the past, similar to those found around planets, raising intriguing questions about the absence of ringed moons in the present day. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. A depiction of a moon resembling Earth’s satellite, encircled by shimmering icy rings. Recent studies indicate that this scenario might have been a feasible existence for several moons within our solar system. None of the moons in our solar system possess rings today. But a new study indicates that such rings, if created, could remain stable for a million years, even while being gravitationally pulled by other solar system objects. The findings deepen the mystery of why these satellites are now ring-free. Rings surround many members of our planetary family. Saturn is perhaps the best-known example, swathed by eight main rings made of thousands of smaller ringlets, but the other three outer planets also possess rings, the Voyager space missions revealed. Composed of chunks of ice and rocks of varying sizes, these ring systems are maintained by small shepherding moons, whose gravitational forces tug the chunks and tweak their positions. More recent studies using ground-based telescopes have revealed rings encircling several centaurs — asteroids beyond Jupiter’s orbit — and minor planets, including the egg-shaped Haumea. Even Earth and Mars may once have had rings. However, no study so far has definitively spotted rings around any of the solar system's 300-odd moons. (A 2008 study claiming that Jupiter's moon Rhea possessed a ring turned out to be a false alarm.) This absence is all the more intriguing because the physical processes that create rings can theoretically occur on both planets and their satellites. A ring can form around an object when debris starts orbiting it, said Matthew Tiscareno, a planetary scientist at the SETI Institute in Mountain View, California. This debris could be kicked up from the body's surface following an asteroid or comet collision, or may consist of icy plumes ejected by powerful cryovolcanoes. Over time, gravitational forces along the body's equatorial bulge flatten out the debris into a ring, Tiscareno told Live Science in an email. But lots of moons have suffered asteroid impacts or have cryovolcanoes — and yet, they remain ringless. The search for the elusive lunar rings These observations prompted Mario Sucerquia, an astrophysicist at France's Grenoble Alpes University, and colleagues to investigate whether moon rings could be stable at all. A 2022 study Sucerquia co-authored found that theoretically, isolated moons could have stable rings around them. But that study didn't consider the gravitational effects of other moons and planets. To investigate this, in the new study published Oct. 30, 2024 in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics. Sucerquia and colleagues selected five sets of spherical moons and their neighboring planets, including Earth and the moon. For each set, the team added rings to all the satellites, then simulated how the rings would behave over a million years, while being pulled gravitationally by their parent moon, other nearby moons and the planet. The researchers also calculated how chaotically the ring particles moved over a millennium, to determine the rings' stability. The researchers expected to find that the rings were unstable, but the model showed that, barring a few moons, including Saturn's "Death Star" moon Mimas, these moon rings were stable — particularly Jupiter’s Iapetus. Even Earth's moon had a 95% chance of supporting a stable ring system in the simulations. Sucerquia shared with Live Science via email, "[W]e were not expecting that moons situated in a challenging gravitational setting, influenced by numerous other moons and planets, would be able to preserve stability in their rings." He added, however, that "instead of obliterating the rings, these harsh environments have enhanced their beauty by forming intricate structures such as gaps and waves, akin to what we see in Saturn's rings." View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Currently, none of the 293 moons in our solar system, as illustrated in this image, possess permanent rings. What happened to all the rings? So why don't the moons have rings today? The authors suggest that non-gravitational factors, including the sun's radiation and charged particles from the magnetic fields of the moons' parent planets, caused any previous rings to disintegrate. There are differing opinions regarding the conclusions of the study. Tiscareno, who did not participate in the research, believes that over time, the rings were probably disrupted by the gravitational forces exerted by the moons that orbit the planet. "Because most solar system moons rotate very slowly (keeping the same face towards their planet as they orbit, as our moon does to Earth), any ring particles must be orbiting the moon much faster than the moon spins," he said. So gravitational tugs from the parent moons, over long stretches of time, would "cause the ring particle orbits to decay until they eventually impact the surface of the moon," he said. In other words, if our moon ever had rings, they crashed to the lunar surface long ago.

Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

Space Photo of the Week: Hubble's 23-Year Journey to Capture the Tilted Spiral Galaxy

In this remarkable Hubble image, over two decades in the making, the dazzling spiral galaxy UGC 10043 unveils the mysteries behind its surprisingly large bulge. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. UGC 10043 is among the rare spiral galaxies observed from the edge perspective. What it is: Spiral galaxy UGC 10043 Where it is: 150 million light-years away in the constellation Serpens When it was shared: December 12, 2024 Why it's so special: This image of a spiral galaxy taken by the Hubble Space Telescope is a portrait more than two decades in the making. Similar to many full-color images of celestial bodies, this one is a composite made from images captured in various wavelengths of light. What distinguishes this particular image is that the data utilized for its creation was gathered during observation sessions in 2000 and 2023, spanning a remarkable 23 years. This long-term advantage of having a space telescope in orbit is evident: Hubble was launched aboard the space shuttle Discovery on April 24, 1990, and its extensive operational duration has allowed it to gather an immense wealth of data about the universe's many facets. But besides the prolonged methods used to create it, it's also an unusual image on its face. Spiral galaxies — which account for about 60% of all galaxies in the universe, according to the European Space Agency — are, by chance, typically seen face-on when viewed from the solar system. That’s why spiral galaxies are typically associated with vivid spiral arms, which can only be seen from a face-on vantage. However, UGC 10043 is viewed edge-on, with its rings seemingly flattened into a line. This unique angle gives astronomers the chance to see how spiral galaxies are structured in 3D. The image of UGC 10043 showcases distinct lanes of dust that would probably resemble spiral arms if the galaxy were viewed from a frontal perspective. In this view, these dust lanes obscure the combined light emitted by the stars that constitute the galaxy. Additionally, they harbor dark clouds that serve as regions for star formation. In the middle of the image lies a luminous bulge — the vibrant core of the galaxy. Every galaxy possesses a core, but the one in UGC 10043 is notably oversized. Researchers believe this may be a result of UGC 10043 merging with a nearby dwarf galaxy, which has provided an abundance of dust and gas, stimulating the formation of new stars. This collision might also account for the slight distortion in the galaxy's disk, which curves upwards on one side and downwards on the other.

Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

Was the notorious Stanford Prison Experiment a complete fabrication?

A French historian specializing in science has conducted an in-depth investigation into the real events behind the Stanford prison experiment, uncovering that the 'guards' were deliberately instructed to act with cruelty. His research has now been translated into English. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Source: BBC/Stanford University. A recent translation of a 2018 work by French science historian Thibault Le Texier calls into question the assertions made by one of psychology's most renowned experiments. Exploring the Stanford Prison Experiment: Unraveling the Myth, published recently in English, documents serious limitations of the study – including that student “guards” were actually coached to dehumanise their “prisoners” – and asks how such a flawed experiment became so influential. A notorious 'cell' located in the basement of a university You’ve likely heard of the Stanford prison experiment. In 1971, 24 young male volunteers were randomly assigned to the roles of “inmates” and “guards” in a pretend prison in the basement of Stanford University’s psychology department. The circumstances escalated rapidly. By the second day, the volunteers assigned as guards had started to inflict psychological torment on the inmates. Deprived of clothing, blinded by hoods, bound by chains, and subjected to starvation and sleep deprivation, the inmates experienced severe psychological distress, with half of them experiencing nervous breakdowns. Consequently, by the sixth day, the experiment – originally intended to continue for two weeks – was abruptly terminated. The experiment was conducted by social psychologist Philip Zimbardo, who died last year at the age of 91. He argued that the transformation of seemingly normal people into cruel guards and passive prisoners was proof that social situations have the power to corrupt human behaviour. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Inmates were required to don short smocks featuring identification numbers. Source: PirsonExp.org His sensational findings and the dramatic story of the experiment, illustrated with photos of uniformed guards in aviator shades and batons standing threateningly over cowering and hooded prisoners, made Zimbardo and his experiment famous. Since it was conducted over five decades ago, the lessons from the experiment have been applied to a burgeoning number of situations beyond prison. By 2007 Zimbardo used it to explain corporate fraud, military torture, cult behaviour and even genocide. A newly released English version of French scholar Thibault Le Texier’s 2018 work reveals a more intricate and concerning narrative surrounding the renowned study. It raises questions about Zimbardo’s credibility as the storyteller of his own findings. Critiques of the experiment are not a recent development; concerns regarding its methodology and Zimbardo's claim that situations can dominate our personalities have been raised since 1975. However, Le Texier's comprehensive findings, now accessible in English for the first time, provide an in-depth narrative of the events that transpired behind the scenes. Trained to be ruthless By utilizing archival materials, previously unreleased video recordings, transcripts, and in-depth interviews with those involved – such as the guards, inmates, and researchers – Le Texier constructs a detailed chronological narrative of the experiment's progression. Far from being swept up in the situation, archival sources show the guards’ brutality was rehearsed. Contrary to official accounts, before the experiment they were coached by the research team in how to create a psychologically hostile environment. Zimbardo provided the guards with a set of regulations to enforce, along with methods intended to dehumanize the inmates. As the experiment progressed, the staff motivated the guards to act aggressively and scolded those who showed too much compassion. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. The 'inmates' were confined to stark cells, with three individuals sharing each one. Source: PrisonExp.org In comparison, the inmates were not well-prepared. Many of them imagined their time behind bars would be filled with reading or watching television in their cells. Therefore, they were taken aback by the humiliations they faced, the lack of cigarettes and books, and other forms of entertainment, as well as the often capricious and shifting regulations. The reactions of the prisoners and guards to the circumstances varied significantly. While some guards embraced their responsibilities with fervor, others showed compassion towards the inmates, sneaking in snacks and cigarettes. One guard even decided to resign. Certain inmates chose to work together, while others stood firm against authority, and a few even staged a rebellion. One individual initiated a hunger strike. While many sought freedom, they quickly realized that, contrary to what they had been promised, leaving was not an option for them. Their release would only be granted in the event of a medical or psychiatric crisis. Le Texier discovered that only three prisoners were set free due to claims of emotional turmoil, and at least one of them had pretended to be in distress. The experiment was halted due to potential failure risks. Le Texier observed that by the sixth day, the guards were growing more ineffective as the remaining prisoners continued to resist. An unanticipated visit from a lawyer brought to light questions regarding the legality of detaining volunteers without their consent. Both of these elements contributed to the sudden conclusion of the experiment. A lasting hold on the shared awareness of society. According to Le Texier, several key elements have contributed to the lasting notoriety of Zimbardo's experiment, including his adeptness at engaging with the media, his talent for making complex ideas accessible to the public, the backing of his university, and the predominantly uncritical reception of his results. It continues to exert a powerful grip on the public imagination, largely through the promotional flair of its creator. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. In the Stanford prison experiment, the guards imposed numerous humiliations on the 'prisoners.' Source: PrisonExpo.org Le Texier’s book raises important questions about the cultural and political factors that shape research. For example, Zimbardo’s study was conducted during a period of intense anti-authoritarianism and against the backdrop of the 1971 Attica prison riot, the deadliest prison uprising in the United States. Le Texier's work offers valuable insights into science communication and highlights how media-savvy scientists can effectively create and share compelling narratives. The Stanford prison experiment may be downplayed or criticized in academic literature for its exaggerated assertions, yet it is improbable that it will fade from the collective consciousness of the public. According to Le Texier, the experiment has captured our shared awareness so strongly that, although its results may be inaccurate, it seems to convey a significant moral teaching. Zimbardo had a unique ability to address our deep-seated desire for solutions to the pressing issues of our era. While it may lack solid theoretical grounding and resemble a morality tale masquerading as scientific inquiry, the lasting notoriety of the Stanford prison experiment lies in its perceived insights into how ordinary individuals can descend into malevolence. This narrative continues to resonate, as it offers a compelling tale. Sale View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Exploring the Stanford Prison Experiment: Unraveling the Myth Hardcover Book Le Texier, Thibault (Author) English (Publication Language) 210 Pages – 08/09/2024 (Publication Date) – Springer (Publisher) Gina Perry, Science historian with a specific interest in the history of social psychology., The University of Melbourne This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

The James Webb Space Telescope has reached a significant milestone by discovering 44 ancient stars.

View pictures in App save up to 80% data. fabio lamanna - stock.adobe.com - for illustrative purposes only Thanks to NASA's James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), a team of astronomers from the University of Arizona’s Steward Observatory has reached a significant breakthrough in cosmic research. Through the observation of a galaxy located approximately 6.5 billion light-years away, which dates back to a time when the universe was only half as old as it is now, researchers discovered 44 distinct stars. This achievement was enabled by gravitational lensing and the light-gathering capabilities of the JWST. As a result, this discovery has established a new record for the highest number of individual stars observed in a distant galaxy. “This groundbreaking discovery demonstrates, for the first time, that studying large numbers of stars in a distant galaxy is possible,” explained Fengwu Sun, a postdoctoral researcher at the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian (CfA) and co-author of the study. Sun elaborated on how previous studies conducted with the Hubble Space Telescope managed to identify around seven stars. Nevertheless, thanks to the enhanced capabilities of the JWST, researchers are now able to observe stars that were once too distant to detect. This progress is important as it enables researchers to examine dark matter in the lensing areas of galaxies and stars by observing a greater number of individual stars, a feat that was unattainable when only a limited number of stars could be seen. A group of stars was identified through the analysis of JWST images of a galaxy referred to as the Dragon Arc. This galaxy is situated behind a large galaxy cluster called Abell 370, and the gravitational lensing caused by Abell 370 alters the Dragon Arc's spiral structure, giving it a stretched and elongated appearance. Through the examination of the star colors within the Dragon Arc, the research team found that a significant number of these stars are red supergiants. This contrasts sharply with earlier studies that predominantly recognized blue supergiants. The researchers highlighted that this difference emphasizes the JWST's ability to utilize infrared wavelengths, enabling it to detect cooler stars that may have been overlooked by other telescopes. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Fabio Lamanna – stock.adobe.com – for illustrative purposes only. Sun stated, "Our initial goal was to find a background galaxy that is being lensing-magnified by the galaxies within this enormous cluster, but in the process, we ended up discovering these individual stars." "However, as we analyzed the data, we discovered what seemed to be numerous individual star points. This was an exhilarating discovery, as it marked the first occasion we could observe such a vast number of distant individual stars." Galaxies such as the Milky Way generally contain tens of billions of stars, allowing astronomers to examine individual stars in nearby galaxies. However, the light emitted by stars in galaxies located billions of light-years away tends to merge during its extensive journey to our planet. This phenomenon is exactly what has made it challenging for scientists to comprehend the processes behind the formation and evolution of galaxies. Yoshinobu Fudamoto, the primary author of the study, explained that while distant galaxies often appear as “diffuse, fuzzy blobs,” these seemingly indistinct formations actually consist of numerous individual stars that current telescopes are unable to resolve. Recent developments in astronomy have unveiled exciting opportunities thanks to gravitational lensing, a phenomenon in which the intense gravitational force of large celestial bodies enhances the light from distant stars. This effect enables the light from these remote stars to be magnified, making them observable with advanced telescopes. By conducting further observations with the JWST, researchers aim to discover an even greater number of magnified stars within the Dragon Arc, potentially allowing for the study of hundreds of far-off stars. Examining these specific stars could enhance our comprehension of the architecture of gravitational lenses and aid in deciphering the enigmas related to dark matter. To read the study’s complete findings, which have since been published in Nature Astronomy, visit the link here. More About:News

Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

China is gearing up to construct a massive solar energy array in space, which has the potential to harvest more energy in a single year than the total amount of oil available on our planet.

China has revealed its intentions to construct a massive solar power space station, which will be transported into orbit in segments with the help of the country's newly developed heavy-lift rockets. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. On July 23, 2020, a Chinese Long March 5 rocket successfully lifted off from the Wenchang Satellite Launch Center located on Hainan Island, carrying the Tianwen-1 Mars rover, lander, and orbiter for the China National Space Administration. Chinese researchers have unveiled a proposal to construct a massive solar power facility in space, measuring 0.6 miles (1 kilometer) in width, which will transmit a steady stream of energy to Earth using microwave technology. The project, which will see its components lofted to a geostationary orbit above Earth using super-heavy rockets, has been dubbed "another Three Gorges Dam project above the Earth." The Three Gorges Dam, located in the middle of the Yangtze river in central China, is the world's largest hydropower project and generates 100 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity each year. According to one NASA scientist, the dam is so large that, if completely filled, the mass of the water contained within would lengthen Earth's days by 0.06 microseconds. The new project, according to lead scientist Long Lehao, the chief designer of China’s Long March rockets, would be "as significant as moving the Three Gorges Dam to a geostationary orbit 36,000km (22,370 miles) above the Earth." "This is an incredible project to look forward to," Long added during a lecture in October hosted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), as reported by the South China Morning Post. "The energy collected in one year would be equivalent to the total amount of oil that can be extracted from the Earth." Despite recent advances in the cheapness and efficiency of solar power, the technology still faces some fundamental limitations — such as intermittent cloud cover and most of the atmosphere absorbing solar radiation before it hits the ground. Researchers have put forward various technologies for Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) that would allow for the ongoing collection and transmission of solar energy from space, where sunlight is ten times more potent than what we experience on Earth's surface. However, constructing a sufficiently large array would require numerous launches, resulting in the majority of proposals not being realized. To overcome this challenge, Long and his team are working on the development of the Long March-9 (CZ-9) reusable heavy-lift rocket, which will have a lift capacity of at least 150 tons (136 metric tons). Besides being used for satellites, the rocket will also be key to China's plans to reach the moon — where it wants to build an international lunar research base by 2035. China isn't the only nation eyeing plans for solar satellite arrays. The U.S. companies Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman, the European Space Agency, and Japan's JAXA space agency have also been investigating the technology, with the latter scheduling the launch of a small, proof-of-concept satellite this year to assess its feasibility.

Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

Stone Age Craftspeople Selected Their Materials Deliberately. A Recent Study Aims to Uncover the Reasons Behind Their Choices.

To effectively engage with the simplest forms of technology, one needs to possess a certain level of intelligence. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Ancient quartzite spearheads, akin to the tools examined in the research. However, which option would a Stone Age artisan opt for? Image credit: Ique Perez/Shutterstock.com The human Stone Age was, undeniably, the first step on a journey towards the species total technological dominance – but it didn’t have to be. After all, pick a rock that’s too soft, or too wonky, and our ancestors may never have made it past “ape with aspirations”. So how did they manage to get it so right? Recent research offers insights into this question, or at the very least, lays the groundwork for further exploration. By conducting direct experiments on different raw materials sourced from percussive tools at Melka Wakena, an archaeological site in the Ethiopian Highlands dating back 1.6 to 0.7 million years, scientists were able to deduce the qualities that rendered these materials beneficial to our prehistoric ancestors. They also examined the circumstances under which specific advantages were prioritized over others in their decision-making processes. “Our research shows that the material properties of the stones – such as suitability, quality, and durability – were likely crucial factors in the selection process by early hominins,” explained Dr Eduardo Paixão, a researcher at the University of Algarve, Portugal, and study lead, in a translated statement. Paixão remarked, “This indicates that they possessed a profound awareness of their surroundings and made intentional decisions.” It wasn’t always as straightforward as you might think, either. For as primitive as we like to think of our Stone Age ancestors being, they understood the nuances of rock way better than we do (save for the odd geologist out there): “Our experimental results show that, while two types of rock (ignimbrite and glassy ignimbrite) appear similar to the naked eye, they behave considerably differently,” explains the paper. The study highlights that glassy ignimbrite, sourced from a greater distance, posed some challenges in terms of convenience for use. However, it was noted to be “considerably tougher” and “the most uniform raw material available, exhibiting superior resistance.” Consequently, the softer variant of the rock, though more accessible, was overlooked in favor of “glassy ignimbrite, which was transported from afar as substantial flake blanks, specifically chosen for creating [large cutting tools].” It’s not just the results that are important here. As the paper makes clear, a lot of what we’ve traditionally understood about Stone Age technology has been based on… well, vibes, more or less: “in many cases, […] inferences about [artefacts’] specific functions are based on preconceived assumptions about their size and morphology,” the paper explains.  Even those that have been systematically analyzed are still kind of fuzzy, it adds, since “Differences in the physical properties of rocks are often described and organized by researchers in distinct categories of ‘raw material quality’. "It clarifies that, nonetheless, establishing and measuring this 'quality' is quite complex." In that respect, the new paper – and the project it marks a beginning to – is undoubtedly remarkable. It’s perhaps the first study to analyze these ancient stone tools on their own terms: not only performing a post-hoc analysis of the artefacts, but replicating their original use. And it’s paid off: already, the researchers have noticed that some properties, previously assumed to be one of these mysterious “qualities” of the rock itself, are actually the result of the tool’s use over time. Co-author Dr. João Marreiros stated, “The intentional choice of materials impacted the alterations observed on the tools' surfaces. This indicates that variations in archaeological discoveries are not merely coincidental.” “These discoveries provide fresh insights into the technological advancements of early human civilizations,” remarked Paixão. “We intend to conduct additional studies to gain a deeper understanding of the intricate choices made by these primitive artisans.” The study is published in the journal PLOS ONE. 

Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

Unveiling the Remarkable Strength of Celtic Women and Their Daughters

Bournemouth University View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Numerous female skeletons were discovered interred alongside precious items such as pottery. New research suggests that women in Britain 2,000 years ago may have transferred land and wealth to their daughters rather than their sons, indicating that communities were organized around maternal lineage. Skeletons discovered in Dorset revealed DNA evidence indicating that Celtic men relocated to reside with the families and communities of their wives. Researchers discovered indications of an entire community that developed over generations centered on the female lineage of a family, likely tracing back to a single woman. "According to Dr. Lara Cassidy, the lead author of the study from Trinity College Dublin, this suggests that during the Iron Age in Britain, women held significant power and were capable of influencing the society's direction in various aspects." Bournemouth University View pictures in App save up to 80% data. The archaeologists were thrilled to discover skeletons remarkably well-preserved in the clay soil of Dorset. This marks the first documented instance of communities forming around women in ancient European history. Researchers suggest that the communities likely devoted significant resources to their daughters, anticipating that they would inherit their mothers' social standing. Dr. Cassidy remarks, "While it's quite uncommon in today's societies, this may not have always been true." The team discovered indications that it occurred in various locations across Britain, implying that it was prevalent. The communities examined thrived during the era of Boudica, the warrior queen who spearheaded a revolt against Roman forces in East Anglia circa AD 61. Dr. Cassidy analyzed the DNA extracted from the skeletal remains of 57 members of a tribe known as the Durotriges. This group inhabited Winterborne Kingston in Dorset during the period spanning from 100 BC to AD 100. A team of archaeologists from Bournemouth University excavated the skeletons from a burial site. Through the analysis of mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited exclusively from mothers, Dr. Cassidy discovered that the majority of women in the community share a familial connection that stretches back several generations. In contrast, the Y chromosomes exhibited significant diversity, which is inherited from father to son, suggesting that men from various families integrated into the community through marriage. Bournemouth University View pictures in App save up to 80% data. The remains of individuals from the Durotriges tribe were remarkably well-preserved. The DNA examination suggests that the majority of the ancestral lineage can be traced back to one particular woman. The findings suggest that this society operated under a matrilocal structure, where a husband would relocate to reside within his wife's community. Dr. Cassidy states, "One of the most apparent advantages for a woman is that by staying at home, she maintains her support network. Her parents, siblings, and family members remain close by." "Your husband is the one entering the picture; he is the unfamiliar face in the community and relies on your family for his support and land," she continues. The researchers discovered similar evidence of matrilocality in skeletal remains from additional burial sites, including those located in Cornwall and Yorkshire. She argues that instances of influential women in ancient societies have frequently been overlooked as isolated cases rather than the standard, but these discoveries call that perspective into question. Archaeologists Professor Miles Russell and Professor Martin Smith discovered additional proof indicating that women held a significant status. Bournemouth University View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Researchers from Trinity College and Bournemouth conducted excavations and analyses on the remains of 57 individuals. "We find quite elaborately furnished graves with high status objects of wealth. Every time we find that, it occurs in women's graves, so we think wealth was being transferred down the female line," says Prof Martin Smith at Bournemouth University. The results also support ancient Roman texts that indicated women in Britain held considerable power, arguably even greater than that of their counterparts in Rome. However, Romans such as Julius Caesar considered that to be a mark of primitiveness. "According to Professor Miles Russell from Bournemouth University, 'Women in Britain held significant power, contributing to a more egalitarian society. This was a major issue for the Romans, who lived in a highly patriarchal culture. To the Romans, this characteristic made the Britons appear as the epitome of barbarism.'" Most societies today follow a patrilocal structure, where women relocate to the communities of their husbands. However, certain matrilocal communities can still be found today or have existed in the recent past, such as the Akans in Ghana, West Africa, and the Cherokee in North America. Researchers suggest that Iron Age Britain might have been matrilocal, as men were often absent due to warfare. Dr. Cassidy likens it to World War II, a time when women experienced an increase in their political and economic influence. According to her, matrilocal societies tend to have a lower likelihood of facing internal conflicts. "It has the potential to foster a sense of togetherness among nearby communities and villages. By separating clusters of related males, it prevents the formation of deep bonds and the onset of conflicts with neighboring related males," she proposes. The results have been released in the scientific publication Nature. Follow Georgina on Blue Sky.

Science2025-03-18 20:28:31

This Marine Being Possesses a Body Covered in Eyes

View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Chiton featuring thousands of 'eyes'. Image sourced from Science Magazine on Youtube. Chitons possess distinctive 'eyes' that set them apart from all other organisms on the planet. These small lenses, known as ocelli, enable them to perceive light and shapes. Recent research has uncovered the evolutionary pathways that led to the development of these remarkable visual systems in various existing chiton species. Chitons View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Acanthopleura granulata, commonly known as the West Indian fuzzy chiton, is a tropical species belonging to the chiton family. Image credit: PiterKrig via Depositphotos. Chitons are marine mollusks That belong to the class Polyplacophora, which contains about 940 extant and 430 fossil species. Their aragonite shell plates allow them to flex and curl up into a ball for protection. Chiton Habitat Chitons are marine mollusks that primarily inhabit rocky shorelines in intertidal zones. They are commonly found clinging to rocks and other hard surfaces, where they can withstand the harsh conditions of wave action and varying water levels. These creatures prefer areas with plenty of algae and other food sources, as they graze on these organisms using their specialized radula. Chitons are also capable of hiding in crevices and under boulders during low tide to protect themselves from predators and desiccation. Overall, their habitat is crucial for their survival, providing both nourishment and shelter. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Acanthopleura haddoni is a tropical chiton species found in the Red Sea. This marine mollusk can often be seen clinging to rocks. Image sourced from depositphotos. Chitons are typically seen clinging to rocks while feeding on algae, bryozoans, and diatoms. Nevertheless, certain species exhibit omnivorous or carnivorous feeding habits. A Collection of Gazes View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Chiton. Photo courtesy of Deep Marine Scenes through Depositphotos. A recent research study has shown that the ancestors of chitons developed eyes on four separate occasions, leading to the evolution of two unique types of eyes that are present in chitons today. Aesthetic enthusiasts View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Acanthopleura haddoni is a tropical chiton species found in the Red Sea. This marine mollusk can often be seen clinging to rocks. Image sourced from depositphotos. Their light-detecting components, known as aesthetes, are mixed with either larger ocular structures or smaller, more abundant eyespots that link to optic nerves through openings in the shell plates. Shell Vision View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Image captured from “Marine life forms a multitude of eyes using its shell”, Source: “YouTube”, Uploaded by “Science Journal” Chiton shell eyes are situated within their aragonite shells. Each of these 'eyes' comprises a lens, pigmented cells, and photoreceptor cells located beneath the lens. While the main role of these shell eyes is to sense light, researchers also think that ocelli may be capable of recognizing simple shapes. Eye Markings View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Image captured from “Marine life forms a multitude of eyes using its shell”, Source: “YouTube”, Uploaded by “Science Journal” View pictures in App save up to 80% data. “Marine organism creates a thousand eyes from its shell”, Source: “YouTube”, Uploaded by: “Science Magazine” Chitons featuring eyespots typically possess numerous slits across their shell segments. Like shell eyes, these eye spots are composed of a lens, a layer of pigmented cells that minimize light scattering, and photoreceptor cells located beneath the lens. Their primary role is to sense light. The Evolutionary Theory View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Image captured from “Marine life forms a multitude of eyes using its shell”, Source: “YouTube”, Uploaded by “Science Journal” Evolution describes how organisms developed from earlier life forms during the earth’s history. Charles Darwin introduced the concept of evolution. The evolution of chitons, a class of marine mollusks known as Polyplacophora, is a fascinating subject that showcases the adaptability and resilience of these creatures over millions of years. Chitons are characterized by their distinctive eight overlapping shell plates, which provide protection and flexibility. Fossil evidence suggests that chitons have existed for at least 500 million years, dating back to the Cambrian period. Their evolutionary history reflects significant changes in marine environments, with chitons adapting to various habitats ranging from rocky shorelines to deep-sea ecosystems. Throughout their evolution, chitons have developed specialized feeding mechanisms, such as their radula, which allows them to scrape algae and other organic material from surfaces. Their ability to cling tightly to rocks using their muscular foot has also contributed to their survival in turbulent coastal waters. As researchers continue to study the genetic and morphological diversity of chitons, they gain insights into how these creatures have evolved in response to environmental changes and ecological pressures. Understanding chitons not only sheds light on their evolutionary journey but also provides valuable information about marine biodiversity and the health of ocean ecosystems. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Acanthopleura haddoni is a tropical chiton species found in the Red Sea. This marine mollusk can often be seen clinging to rocks. Image sourced from depositphotos. Researchers suggest that throughout their evolutionary history, chitons have developed four distinct types of visual systems, with two still in use today. Chiton species featuring fewer slits have adapted larger and more intricate shell eyes, whereas those possessing a greater number of slits have evolved numerous but simpler eyespots on their shells. Chiton Varieties Approximately 940 species of chitons, commonly referred to as polyplacophorans, exist. These marine mollusks are distinguished by their eight-part shells and inhabit a wide range of marine habitats across the globe. Chitons primarily feed on algae, particularly those found on rocky surfaces. They use their rasping tongues, known as radulas, to scrape off the algae and other organic material from rocks and substrates in their marine environments. Some species may also consume small invertebrates or detritus. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Acanthopleura haddoni is a tropical chiton species found in the Red Sea. This marine mollusk can often be seen clinging to rocks. Image sourced from depositphotos. Chitons are herbivorous creatures that utilize their unique radula, a tongue-like structure adorned with numerous tiny, tough teeth, to scrape algae and various organic materials from rocky surfaces. While their main diet revolves around algae, they also feed on small invertebrates and detritus, helping to maintain the cleanliness of the marine ecosystem. Yes, chitons play a significant role in their ecosystems. As herbivores, they graze on algae and other plant materials on rocky surfaces, helping to control algal growth and maintain the balance of the ecosystem. Their feeding habits can prevent overgrowth of algae, which can otherwise suffocate other marine organisms. Additionally, chitons serve as a food source for various predators, contributing to the food web. Their presence can indicate the health of their marine environment, making them important indicators of ecosystem health. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Acanthopleura haddoni is a tropical chiton species found in the Red Sea. This marine mollusk can often be seen clinging to rocks. Image sourced from depositphotos. Certainly! Chitons are vital for the health of their ecosystems. By feeding on algae, they help control its growth, preventing it from overwhelming coral reefs and other marine organisms. Their existence is essential for sustaining the delicate equilibrium of coastal marine habitats. To observe chitons in their natural habitat, follow these steps: 1. **Research Locations**: Identify coastal areas where chitons are known to inhabit, such as rocky shorelines, tide pools, or intertidal zones. 2. **Timing**: Plan your visit during low tide, as this will expose more of the intertidal zone and increase your chances of spotting chitons. 3. **Equipment**: Bring along necessary equipment such as water shoes, a tide pool guidebook, and a camera for documentation. 4. **Look Closely**: Chitons often blend in with the rocks, so take your time to look closely at the surfaces of rocks and other substrates. They may be hiding under seaweed or in crevices. 5. **Observe Behavior**: Spend time quietly observing their behavior, as chitons can be shy. Look for movement or changes in their position. 6. **Respect the Environment**: Be mindful of the ecosystem. Avoid disturbing the rocks and surrounding marine life while observing chitons. 7. **Join a Guided Tour**: Consider joining a marine biology tour or a guided beach walk, where experts can provide insights and help you spot chitons more easily. By following these guidelines, you can enhance your chances of successfully observing chitons in their natural habitat. View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Acanthopleura haddoni is a tropical chiton species found in the Red Sea. This marine mollusk can often be seen clinging to rocks. Image sourced from depositphotos. If you want to spot chitons, visit rocky coastlines when the tide is low. Search for them attached to rocks in tide pools or nestled beneath boulders. Approach with care and kindness—these ancient and hardy animals play an essential role in their ecosystems, and it’s important to keep their environments safe and undisturbed. Summary View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Acanthopleura haddoni is a tropical chiton species found in the Red Sea. This marine mollusk can often be seen clinging to rocks. Image sourced from depositphotos. This fascinating mollusk has evolved remarkable adaptations for safeguarding itself and perceiving its surroundings. Recent research offers insights into the evolutionary history of these captivating marine creatures. Additional Updates on Animal News View pictures in App save up to 80% data. Acanthopleura haddoni is a tropical chiton species found in the Red Sea. This marine mollusk can often be seen clinging to rocks. Image sourced from depositphotos. Latest posts by Cayla de Souza, M.Sc. Ocean Sciences & Marine Biology (see all)